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In my teaching programmes for Calligraphy and Illumination I frequently make reference to many beautiful manuscripts of previous centuries. Each has a fascinating history and can inform us about the political upheavals, religious observance and social mores of the past. For example, the celebrated Book of Kells is one of the richest and most intricate of the Gospels in the Celto-Saxon style. Written apparently in the time of St Columba (c563AD) it was plundered and stripped of its covers and some pages. In 1006AD it is reputed to have been buried in the earth for at least three months to escape the Viking ravages. One of its most marvellous pages is that of 'Christi autem generatio' - the opening words of St Matthew's Gospel, and containing the Monogram of Christ. This is often referred to as the Chi-Rho cipher.
A further example is that of the glorious Lindisfarne Gospels written at the end of the seventh century. An outstanding masterpiece of early mediaeval illumination, it also has lost its binding. We know rather more about its origins, since a colophon was added in the 10th Century by the priest Aldred - one of the earliest examples of desecration of a work of art. However, the record states that the Book was made in honour of God and St Cuthbert by Eadfrith, Bishop of Lindisfarne. The binding was the work of Ethelwald, who succeeded him and ornaments of gold and gems were added by Billfrith the anchorite. Its Chi-Rho page is similarly intricate and breathtaking.
The most prolific of early manuscripts is to be found in other sources, notably that grouped under the heading Books of Hours, especially those possessed by John, Duke of Berry. Such a book is defined as 'records of a form of prayer that was both cause and consequence of the development of castle chapels'. Of all the precious illuminated manuscripts of the later Middle Ages and Renaissance which still survive, by far the largest single category is formed by these personal prayer books of a devout and status-conscious society, mainly the laity. One liberating feature is that in general they were not under priestly control and therefore reveal a unique combination of sacred and secular imagery. They were made to standards which varied in location, time, writer and patron. The development of a printed (as opposed to a calligraphed) Book of Hours formed the subject of great interest for the early printers and was (in modern terms) a 'best seller'. The nascent industry of printing used the type founts based on handwritten scripts. Nearer our own time, the artist William Blake examined and adopted many of the formats for his own design of illuminated books.
In the 15th century, the books were almost mass produced in Paris and there were also centres in other prosperous European cities. The planning and execution of a Book of Hours was a complex operation. The gatherings of vellum sheets (before the widespread use of paper) had to be assembled and ruled with vertical and horizontal lines before the scribe could begin his work. Spaces were left for initials and miniatures. The book was then passed to the miniator, who added coloured decoration to the borders and initials. Finally came the artist who painted the 'ystories' (miniatures). Designs were first drawn in outline and a covering of sized clay applied to the vellum within the design. Gold leaf was then laid on direct with an adhesive and then burnished. Alternatively the gold was applied in powdered form mixed with adhesive. The final stage was the application of colour, usually red and blue, but also yellow, green and a pinkish-red. Books were compiled in sections, not written page by page. Artists often had to work fast and sometimes the work was incomplete before sale or gift to the recipient. A typical book starts with a Calendar, the standardised sequence being: January Feasting
Following the calendar are the Sequences or Gospel passages describing the coming of Christ. Each evangelist is announced by a miniature with his attribute, eg. St John is usually shown on the Isle of Patmos with his eagle holding an inkwell in its beak. Then there are two universally popular prayers to the Virgin, the 'Obsecro te' and 'O intemerata'. Each devotional canonical hour is richly embellished, the hours of the Virgin usually being: Matins The annunciation
Next we have the Penitential Psalms, the Office of the Dead, the Fifteen Joys of the Virgin, the Memorie of Suffrages of the Saints. There may be secondary and accessory texts and the contents generally varied or presented in a different order. It also happens nowadays that the Bible, Books of Prayer or Common Worship may be carried to Church or used in evangelical exhortations. I have vivid recollections in my youth of Dr Billy Graham using his Bible vigorously whilst pursuing his persuasive oratory. Books of Hours tended to be both sources of devotion and precious status symbols. It is known that some were bequeathed in the wills of prosperous patrons. Eustache Deschamps (1346-1406) wrote a satirical poem about the practice - though the words can also be taken at face value! Heures me fault de Nostre Dame
A Book of Hours too, must be mine
Rod Dawson |
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page last updated 1 MAY 2001 |
